שֹׁחַד (Shohad) — bribery

Etymology

The word shohad has undergone a significant semantic shift over three millennia. In its earliest biblical attestations, specifically in the Book of Kings, it described a diplomatic gift or tribute sent by Judean kings to foreign rulers to secure military alliances. In the cases of Kings Asa and Ahaz, the "shohad" consisted of Temple treasures sent to Aramean or Assyrian kings. At this stage, the term lacked the inherent moral stigma it carries today, functioning instead as a recognized tool of ancient diplomacy.

By the late First Temple period and into the Second Temple era, the meaning narrowed and became increasingly pejorative. It specialized into the context of judicial corruption—a gift given to a judge (later called a dayan) to subvert justice. This usage is heavily condemned in prophetic rebukes, wisdom literature, and legal codes, where the prohibition against taking bribes became a foundational moral tenet of Jewish law.

In the Talmudic period, the Sages further expanded the definition to include non-monetary favors (shohad devarim), such as providing physical assistance to a judge or removing a feather from their garment. In the 12th century, Maimonides codified that giving a bribe is as much a transgression as receiving one. By the 18th century, the Hida (Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai) explicitly expanded the scope of the prohibition from judges to all public officials and community appointees.

In the modern era, the definition was further broadened under British Mandate law (1936) and subsequently Israeli law (1952 and 1977). Today, shohad is defined legally and semantically as any benefit—monetary or otherwise—received by a public official in exchange for an action related to their position, even if the specific favor was not explicitly articulated.

Key Quotes

"הִנֵּה שָׁלַחְתִּי לְךָ שֹׁחַד כֶּסֶף וְזָהָב לֵךְ הָפֵרָה אֶת בְּרִיתְךָ..." — מלכים א' ט"ו, י"ט

"ולא דוקא דיין אסור בקבלת שוחד אלא אפילו כל הממונים בצרכי צבור אף שאין דיניהם דין תורה ואסורים להטות העניין בשביל אהבה או שנאה וכל שכן על ידי לקיחת שוחד" — הרב חיים יוסף דוד אֲזוּלַאי (החיד"א), המאה ה-18

"בכך הפכנו את הכוונה הפלילית ליסוד מיסודות המעשה עצמו. פעולה שכשלעצמה עשויה להיות חפה ותמימה, כוונתם הרעה של מבצעיה מטביעה עליה את חותמה" — השופט אלפרד ויתקון, 1978

Timeline

• Biblical Era (First Temple): Used as a neutral term for diplomatic gifts or tributes to foreign kings for military aid.
• Late Biblical Era: Meaning specializes into judicial bribery; becomes strictly prohibited and morally condemned.
• Talmudic Era (c. 200–500 CE): Sages expand the concept to include non-monetary favors and minor assistance (shohad devarim).
• 12th Century: Maimonides rules that giving a bribe violates the principle of "not placing a stumbling block before the blind."
• 18th Century: The Hida applies bribery laws to all public appointees and officials, not just religious judges.
• 1936: The British Mandate Criminal Law Ordinance provides a broad modern definition of bribery.
• 1952/1977: The Israeli Knesset passes and later incorporates the Bribery Offenses Law into the Penal Law.

Related Words

• בַּקְשִׁישׁ (Bakshish) — A Persian loanword for a gift, often used colloquially for a bribe or tip during the Ottoman period.
• דַּיָּן (Dayan) — A judge, particularly in a religious context; the primary subject of early bribery prohibitions.
• תֶּשֶׁר (Tesher) — A modern Hebrew term for a tip or gratuity.
• מַתָּנָה (Mattana) — A gift; the neutral or positive act of giving, distinguished from shohad by intent.